A review of the evidence: Understanding educational experiences of children and young people who are seeking refuge and asylum

Studies which specifically focus on understanding the educational experiences of children who have sought refuge and asylum due to war and conflict are surprisingly scarce. When educational experiences and outcomes have been considered within research, this is usually part of a larger study examining a range of outcomes for refugee children. Articles in this review may not have primarily focussed on refugee children’s educational experience but were included if information pertaining to educational experience was able to be extracted.

Although not the focus of this review, studies were selected if they included consideration of childhood trauma. It should be noted that the measurement of trauma differed across studies and in some cases was not explicitly measured but was an aspect of participant recruitment (e.g., children had experienced war and conflict). The age range across the selected studies was wide, with mean ages ranging from 5-18.  Across the wider resource Childhood Trauma, War, Migration and Asylum, we use the term children and young people seeking refuge and asylum to a) use words that refer to children and young people’s situation and experience as human-beings rather than their legal status and b) recognise the fact that the majority of participants in these studies are not adults, particularly as some will have had their age disputed. We will use the term children and young people seeking refuge and asylum when referring to participants within this review.

It is also worth noting that the research presented here includes children and young people who have sought refuge and asylum in Western countries and therefore may not be generalisable to children who have migrated to other parts of the world.

Summary table

Study author and date	Child gender and age	Child ethnicity or country of origin	Country of resettlement	Number of participants (age range)	Findings related to education
Betancourt et al., 2012	48.3% female, mean age 13.1	Central and South America = 39.6%, Africa = 26.4%, Eastern Europe = 20.8%, Asia = 7.5% Middle East = 5.7%	United States	60	Over half of the children were found to have academic difficulties and almost half were found to have behaviour problems at school or day care
Cardeli et al., 2020	46% female, mean age 12.94	Bhutanese	United States	35	School belonging was significantly inversely associated with depressive and PTSD symptoms at baseline
Dangmann et al., 2020	36.9% female, mean age 18.6	Syrian	Norway	160	School environment was found to positively contribute to health-related quality of life
Geltman et al., 2005	16% female, mean age 17.6	Sudanese	United states	304	Feeling safe at school was associated with a reduced risk of PTSD
Goldin et al., 2008	50% female, age range 7-20 years	Bosnian	Sweden	48	Majority of children were rated as competent by teachers; teachers identified fewer internalising problems than other informants
Groark et al., 2011	33% female, age range 16-18 years	Africa = 83%, Asia = 17%	United Kingdom	6	Qualitative: Education was highly valued and seen as a way to achieve a better life. School was an important place for social support and learning a new culture
Hahnefeld et al., 2021	42% female, mean age 5.14	From 14 nations but most were from Nigeria (26%), Afghanistan (25%), and Syria (13%)	Germany	52	Children experiencing survival states showed poorer learning performance and higher levels of the stress hormone cortisol in the educational setting
Hanes et al., 2019	55.5% female, mean age 6 years	From 10 countries but most were from Iran (35.5%), Sri Lanka (21.8%), Iraq (15.5%), Afghanistan (10%) and Burma (9.1%)	Australia	110	Majority of children experienced disrupted education, with over half not having access to school while in held state detention
Hirani et al., 2018	51% female, median age 14	From 15 countries but most were from Burma (26%), Afghanistan (22%) and Somalia (9%)	Australia	122	More than half of the children were found to have educational difficulties and a quarter of children reported bullying or discrimination as part of their educational experience
Jarlby et al., 2018	0% female, age range 17-18 years	Middle East = 50%, Southeast Asia = 50%	Denmark	6	Qualitative: Attending school was found to support mental health
Kronick et al., 2018	Gender not stated, age range 5-13 years	Country of origin not stated	Canada	10	Qualitative: There was a notable absence of description of schools, teachers, friends, or friendships
Lau et al., 2018	47% female, mean age 11.6	Most children were from Iraq (38.8%), Afghanistan (23.7%) and Bhutan (11.1%)	Australia	694	Children were performing at or above average in school and had low rates of absenteeism, however children reported high levels of peer problems
Lindsay et al., 2022	43% female, median age = 8	Syria = 80%, Iraq = 20%	Australia	327	Over half of the children experienced interrupted education; interrupted schooling was associated with a range of emotional and behavioural symptoms
Mace et al., 2014	43.7% female, mean age 9.58	From 24 countries but most were from Burma (21.4%), Afghanistan (10.8%) and Iran (10.8%)	Australia	332	Over half of the children experienced interrupted education, however parent and teachers reported low levels of cognitive, developmental and peer related problems
Montgomery et al., 2008	58% female, mean age 15.3	Middle Eastern	Denmark	131	Attendance at school was found to reduce externalising behaviour, while the number of schools attended predicted more externalising problems
Samara et al., 2020	57% female, 79 were children aged 6-10 years (57% female) and 70 were aged 11-16 years (59% female)	Afghani origin = 76%, African origin = 24%	United Kingdom	149	The number of friendships and quality of friendships were found to positively impact children’s school-academic self-esteem and well-being
Smid et al., 2011	25% female, age range 12-18 years	From 46 countries but most were from Angola (43%), Sierra Leone (9%), China (9%)	Netherlands	920	Children who reported having three or fewer years of education were more likely to report having late onset PTSD (PTSD at follow-up rather than at initial assessment)
Trentacosta et al., 2016	51% female, mean age 12.83	Iraqi	United Stated	211	Children with more positive feelings about school reported fewer traumatic stress symptoms but also endorsed more traumatic event exposure

Note: For each study we list the size, age, ethnicity/country of origin, and gender of the sample according to the terms given in the source literature. However, we recognise that there is not a clear consensus on how these terms are (or should be) presented in the literature, and that in some cases terminology and categorisation may cause unintended offense or harm. We are continuously discussing how to use language addressing race, ethnicity and gender when writing about research and are open to feedback to how this can be improved in our research communication and dissemination. Please send feedback on language or our approach to uktc@annafreud.org.

Summary of findings

Mental health and well-being

Although not the focus of this review, it is evident that children and young people seeking refuge and asylum experience a range of traumatic experiences, for example, being forced to live in extremely inadequate accommodation, exposure to/witnessing violence, traumatic loss, bereavement or separation, forced displacement, experience of physical abuse or torture (Betancourt et al., 2012; Cardeli et al., 2020; Geltman et al., 2005; Hirani et al., 2018). Many children and young people also had to assume significant family responsibilities at a young age (Cardeli et al., 2020). Children and young people seeking refuge and asylum were found to be exposed to traumatic experiences before and after migration (Montgomery et al., 2008). Children and young people seeking refuge and asylum also experienced a range of mental health difficulties, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), generalised anxiety, somatisation, traumatic grief, and depression, as well as behavioural problems (Betancourt et al., 2012; Cardeli et al., 2020; Geltman et al., 2005; Goldin et al.,2008; Hanhefeld et al., 2021).  

While most studies found that children and young people seeking refuge and asylum experienced mental health difficulties, it is worth noting that one study found no difference between refugee and control group children on life satisfaction, PTSD and peer bullying, which the authors suggest may be attributed to the fact that children and young people seeking refuge and asylum were able to attend supportive afterschool clubs (Samara et al., 2020). Some difficulties which are common in other children who have experienced trauma, including criminal activity, alcohol and substance use, running away from home, and risky sexual behaviours were found to be rare in children and young people seeking refuge and asylum (Betancourt et al., 2012; Hirani et al., 2018).

Overall, children and young people seeking refuge and asylum are exposed to a range of traumatic experiences which contribute to an increased risk of a range of mental health difficulties. A supportive school environment may protect against mental health problems emerging and becoming entrenched.

Education

Several studies found that children and young people seeking refuge and asylum experienced interrupted or disrupted education (Dangmann et al., 2020; Hanes et al., 2019; Lindsay et al., 2022; Mace et al., 2014). Children and young people seeking refuge and asylum were found to have educational difficulties, including challenges with academic performance and school work (Betancourt et al., 2012; Hirani et al., 2018).

Interestingly, one study examined the impact of survival states on the education of children and young people seeking refuge and asylum (Hahnefeld et al., 2021). Survival states refers to an individual’s experience of their present environment as threatening and is often accompanied by corresponding thoughts, emotions, behaviours, and physiological responses. The authors suggested that children and young people seeking refuge and asylum, who have experienced chronic stress and lived in unpredictable environments during war, flight, and relocation, may be more likely to show increased sensitivity to threat cues in their surroundings. The findings of their study revealed that survival states were more prevalent in children and young people seeking refuge and asylum compared to control children. Among the children and young people seeking refuge and asylum, those experiencing survival states showed poorer learning performance and higher levels of the stress hormone cortisol in the educational setting. The authors reflect on these findings, suggesting that when adapting to a new environment, behavioural regulation becomes crucial for children and young people seeking refuge and asylum to fulfil developmental tasks, however, immediate and intense reactions to minor triggers which may have been lifesaving during war and conflict can disrupt classroom functioning. They highlight the need for trauma-sensitive care for children and young people seeking refuge and asylum in educational settings.   

The school environment, however, was widely seen as an important place for intervention and support for children and young people seeking refuge and asylum (Betancourt et al., 2012; Cardeli et al., 2020; Dangmann et al., 2020, Lau et al., 2018; Lindsay et al., 2022; Mace et al., 2014; Samara et al., 2020). Schools which provided support offered a non-stigmatising environment where children and young people seeking refuge and asylum could build relationships and process acculturative stress alongside peers who shared similar experiences (Cardelli et al., 2020).

Despite the challenges they faced, other studies found that children and young people seeking refuge and asylum were performing at or above average in terms of school achievement (Lau et al., 2018). Parents and school staff reported low levels of developmental, cognitive and interpersonal concerns at school (Mace et al., 2014). Children and young people seeking refuge and asylum were rated as having competent cognitive ability, emotional capacity, and social skills by teachers (Goldin et al., 2008).

It is worth nothing that teacher and parent ratings differed in two studies, with one study finding that teachers underestimated children’s difficulties (Goldin et al., 2008) and another study finding higher rates for survival states in children and young people seeking refuge and asylum when using teacher ratings as compared to parent ratings (Hahnefeld et al., 2021). These discrepancies highlight the importance of having multiple informants of health and well-being for children and young people seeking refuge and asylum.   

School was also found to play an important role in the mental health of children and young people seeking refuge and asylum. A sense of belonging in school was associated with lower levels of PTSD and depressive symptoms among children and young people seeking refuge and asylum (Cardeli et al., 2020). Feeling safe at home and at school was associated with reduced risk of PTSD and higher levels of daily functioning among children and young people seeking refuge and asylum (Geltman et al., 2005).  Children and young people seeking refuge and asylum who reported more positive feelings about school reported fewer traumatic stress symptoms but also endorsed more traumatic event exposure, which may indicate that developing a positive connection to school is an important coping mechanism for children who have experienced prior conflict and violence (Trentacosta et al., 2016). Attendance at school or work was found to reduce externalising behaviour in children and young people seeking refuge and asylum, while the number of schools attended predicted more externalising problems (e.g., conflicts with others, aggression, defiance, impulsivity, hyperactivity) (Montgomery et al., 2008).  Children and young people seeking refuge and asylum who reported having three or fewer years of education were more likely to have late onset PTSD (meeting PTSD criteria at follow-up but not at initial assessment) (Smid et al., 2011). School environment was found to positively contribute to the health-related quality of life of children and young people seeking refuge and asylum, possibly owing to the opportunities that schools and teachers provide for socialisation, integration and rehabilitation (Dangmann et al., 2020). The negative impact of state detention on the mental health and educational experiences of children and young people seeking refuge and asylum was highlighted (Hanes et al., 2019, Hirani et al., 2018).

Overall, the findings on education are mixed, with some studies reporting that children and young people seeking refuge and asylum experience challenges with school, and other studies suggesting that they perform at or above average, with school playing and important role in their attainment and well-being.

Behaviour at school and peer relationships

Children and young people seeking refuge and asylum were found to have difficulties with behaviour in school such as getting into trouble, getting a school detention or school suspension or expulsion (Betancourt et al., 2012). Children and young people also reported bullying or discrimination when reporting on their educational experiences (Hirani et al., 2018; Lau et al., 2018). However, school absenteeism was found to be low (Lau et al., 2018). 

Children and young people seeking refuge and asylum were also found to be more likely to have difficulties with peers, including problems with interactions, forming friendships, being liked, and preferring to be alone or with adults (Lau et al., 2018). When examining health-related quality of life, the dimension relating to friendships had one of the lowest scores for children and young people seeking refuge and asylum (Dangmann et al., 2020). It was suggested that behavioural and peer-related difficulties could be influenced by a range of factors including acculturative stress, mental health difficulties, language barriers, social exclusion, and experiences of prejudice or discrimination (Betancourt et al., 2012; Lau et al., 2018).

However, the findings on peer relationships are mixed, as not all studies find that children and young people seeking refuge and asylum have problems with peers (Mace et al., 2014), while Samara and colleagues (2020) reported a greater number of peer friendships. Older children and young people seeking refuge and asylum had lower school-academic self-esteem as compared to younger children and control children (Samara et al., 2020). However, the differences for school-academic self-esteem disappeared when adjusting for number of friends. Younger children and young people seeking refuge and asylum were significantly more likely to have peer problems as compared to the older and control children (Samara et al., 2020). However, group differences in peer problems disappeared when controlling for friendship quality, which suggests that the quality of friendships plays an important role in the well-being of children and young people seeking refuge and asylum.  The authors highlight the importance of positive peer relationships on both academic and social well-being and suggest that school-based programmes (such as afterschool clubs) may help protect children and young people seeking refuge and asylum from bullying and help then integrate into their school community (Samara et al., 2020).  Friendships are important for children and young people seeking refuge and asylum in terms of social and emotional development and well-being, particularly during adolescence, with schools providing an ideal place to promote and build social networks (Lau et al.,2018)

Overall, research suggests that children and young people seeking refuge and asylum may need more support with behaviour at school and may experience difficulties with peer relationships. Equally, however, the research highlights the importance of friendships in promoting their well-being and education experience.  

Qualitative research

Although research examining the experience of children and young people seeking refuge and asylum in their own words is limited, qualitative research offers the opportunity to learn about their first-hand experiences of education (or lack thereof).

Qualitative research by Groark and colleagues (2011) with children and young people seeking refuge and asylum in the UK, found that they were negotiating a new way of life. They noted differences between their home country and the UK, particularly in terms of a sense of freedom and opportunities for education and a better future. They expressed surprise at the different attitudes of young people towards education in the UK, observing a perceived reduction in work ethic. Education was highly valued by young people as a way to achieve a better life. While going through a process of adjustment, young people discussed their efforts to gain control over their lives. Education and acquiring knowledge were seen as pathways to gaining control and achieving success. However, the fear of failure also added pressure to their pursuit of educational success. Avoidance of distressing thoughts and emotions emerged as a common coping strategy. Young people engaged in activities such as socialising with friends, reading, listening to music, walking, and focusing on schoolwork to avoid negative feelings. School tutors played a role in helping them understand UK culture, while church provided a safe space for socialising. Young people highlighted the significance of friendships, although some avoided forming close friendships due to fears of being exposed or deceived. Difficulties in trusting others and processing past losses and adversity contributed to this hesitation. However, friends were seen as instrumental in avoiding difficult thoughts and emotions and providing advice and support in adjusting to the differences they encountered.

Qualitative research by Jarlby and colleagues (2018) with children and young people seeking refuge and asylum in Demark found that they were able to identify factors which impeded their mental health (feeling lonely, isolated, lacking support, concerns over basic needs, physical complaints, feeling misunderstood, feeling judged/marginalised, difficulties with the system) and factors which supported their mental health (going to school, social support, learning the language, focussing on the present, religion, access to activities, feeling helpful and purposeful, being understood and respected).

Finally, qualitative research by Kronick and colleagues (2018) with children in state detention in Canada noted that children’s narratives did not include any mentions of schools, teachers, friends, or friendships. This absence may be attributed to the disruption and isolation experienced during state detention as well as the absence of certain aspects in the children’s real lives, such as a lack of proper education and protective support and, limited socialization. The research highlighted that state detention is not a suitable place for a child.

Overall, qualitative studies highlight how children and young people seeking refuge and asylum are making sense of their experiences as well as what they find difficult and what helps. Qualitative research also highlights the impact of disruption and isolation on children and young people seeking refuge and asylum.

---

References

1. Betancourt, T. S., Newnham, E. A., Layne, C. M., Kim, S., Steinberg, A. M., Ellis, H., & Birman, D. (2012). Trauma history and psychopathology in war-affected refugee children referred for trauma-related mental health services in the United States. Journal of traumatic stress, 25(6), 682–690. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21749
2. Cardeli, E., Phan, J., Mulder, L., Benson, M., Adhikari, R., & Ellis, B. H. (2020). Bhutanese Refugee Youth: The Importance of Assessing and Addressing Psychosocial Needs in a School Setting. The Journal of school health, 90(9), 731–742. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12935
3. Dangmann, C. R., Solberg, Ø., Steffenak, A. K. M., Høye, S., & Andersen, P. N. (2020). Health-related quality of life in young Syrian refugees recently resettled in Norway. Scandinavian journal of public health, 48(7), 688–698. https://doi.org/10.1177/1403494820929833
4. Geltman, P. L., Grant-Knight, W., Mehta, S. D., Lloyd-Travaglini, C., Lustig, S., Landgraf, J. M., & Wise, P. H. (2005). The “lost boys of Sudan”: functional and behavioral health of unaccompanied refugee minors re-settled in the United States. Archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine, 159(6), 585–591. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.159.6.585
5. Goldin, S., Hägglöf, B., Levin, L., & Persson, L. A. (2008). Mental health of Bosnian refugee children: a comparison of clinician appraisal with parent, child and teacher reports. Nordic journal of psychiatry, 62(3), 204–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/08039480801983604
6. Groark, C., Sclare, I., & Raval, H. (2011). Understanding the experiences and emotional needs of unaccompanied asylum-seeking adolescents in the UK. Clinical child psychology and psychiatry, 16(3), 421–442. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359104510370405
7. Hahnefeld, A., Sukale, T., Weigand, E., Münch, K., Aberl, S., Eckler, L. V., Schmidt, D., Friedmann, A., Plener, P. L., Fegert, J. M., & Mall, V. (2021). Survival states as indicators of learning performance and biological stress in refugee children: a cross-sectional study with a comparison group. BMC psychiatry, 21(1), 228. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03233-y
8. Hanes, G., Chee, J., Mutch, R., & Cherian, S. (2019). Paediatric asylum seekers in Western Australia: Identification of adversity and complex needs through comprehensive refugee health assessment. Journal of paediatrics and child health, 55(11), 1367–1373. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpc.14425
9. Hirani, K., Cherian, S., Mutch, R., & Payne, D. N. (2018). Identification of health risk behaviours among adolescent refugees resettling in Western Australia. Archives of disease in childhood, 103(3), 240–246. https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2017-313451
10. Jarlby, F., Goosen, S., Derluyn, I., Vitus, K., & Jervelund, S. S. (2018). What can we learn from unaccompanied refugee adolescents’ perspectives on mental health care in exile?. European journal of pediatrics, 177(12), 1767–1774. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00431-018-3249-0
11. Kronick, R., Rousseau, C., & Cleveland, J. (2018). Refugee children’s sandplay narratives in immigration detention in Canada. European child & adolescent psychiatry, 27(4), 423–437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-017-1012-0
12. Lau, W., Silove, D., Edwards, B., Forbes, D., Bryant, R., McFarlane, A., Hadzi-Pavlovic, D., Steel, Z., Nickerson, A., Van Hooff, M., Felmingham, K., Cowlishaw, S., Alkemade, N., Kartal, D., & O’Donnell, M. (2018). Adjustment of refugee children and adolescents in Australia: outcomes from wave three of the Building a New Life in Australia study. BMC medicine, 16(1), 157. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-018-1124-5
13. Lindsay, K., Hanes, G., Mutch, R., McKinnon, E., & Cherian, S. (2022). Looking beyond: complex holistic care needs of Syrian and Iraqi refugee children and adolescents. Archives of disease in childhood, 107(5), 461–467. https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2021-322718
14. Mace, A. O., Mulheron, S., Jones, C., & Cherian, S. (2014). Educational, developmental and psychological outcomes of resettled refugee children in Western Australia: a review of School of Special Educational Needs: Medical and Mental Health input. Journal of paediatrics and child health, 50(12), 985–992. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpc.12674
15. Montgomery E. (2008). Long-term effects of organized violence on young Middle Eastern refugees’ mental health. Social science & medicine (1982), 67(10), 1596–1603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.07.020
16. Samara, M., El Asam, A., Khadaroo, A., & Hammuda, S. (2020). Examining the psychological well-being of refugee children and the role of friendship and bullying. The British journal of educational psychology, 90(2), 301–329. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12282
17. Smid, G. E., Lensvelt-Mulders, G. J., Knipscheer, J. W., Gersons, B. P., & Kleber, R. J. (2011). Late-onset PTSD in unaccompanied refugee minors: exploring the predictive utility of depression and anxiety symptoms. Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53, 40(5), 742–755. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2011.597083
18. Trentacosta, C. J., McLear, C. M., Ziadni, M. S., Lumley, M. A., & Arfken, C. L. (2016). Potentially traumatic events and mental health problems among children of Iraqi refugees: The roles of relationships with parents and feelings about school. The American journal of orthopsychiatry, 86(4), 384–392. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000186

---

Learn more

Download our free evidence based resources to help children and young people affected by war, migration and asylum as well as the professionals supporting them in both educational and community settings here.